Extant conifer species are adapted to a range of climate conditions, which would be reflected in their xylem structure, especially in tracheid characteristics of early-and-latewood. With an anatomical dataset of 79 conifer species native to China, an interspecific study was conducted within a phylogenetic context to find latitudinal patterns in tracheid cell dimensions in response to climate. The analyses showed that there is a significant difference in tracheid length and diameter between early-and-latewood, but no significant difference in cell wall thickness. An opposite divergence pattern was found based on the PC1 axis of tracheid traits, with species of Pinaceae showing strong divergence in their xylem structure in contrast to a conservative xylem structure for species of the other families studied. Except for tracheid diameter in earlywood, tracheid characteristics decreased as latitude increased. Mean annual temperature, precipitation, and their interaction could explain 24.7% to 49.2% of the variance of the tracheid features measured, while phylogeny accounted for 12.5 to 50.5%, suggesting that both temperature and precipitation play a major role in shaping conifer xylem structure. These results provide valuable insight into the effect of climate on the xylem structure of conifers, helping to further our understanding of trees’ adaptation to climate.

Xylem embolism resistance varies across species influencing drought tolerance, yet little is known about the determinants of the embolism resistance of an individual conduit. Here we conducted an experiment using the optical vulnerability method to test whether individual conduits have a specific water potential threshold for embolism formation and whether pre-existing embolism in neighbouring conduits alters this threshold. Observations were made on a diverse sample of angiosperm and conifer species through a cycle of dehydration, rehydration and subsequent dehydration to death. Upon rehydration after the formation of embolism, no refilling was observed. When little pre-existing embolism was present, xylem conduits had a conserved, individual, embolism resistance threshold that varied across the population of conduits. The consequence of a variable conduit-specific embolism threshold is that a small degree of pre-existing embolism in the xylem results in an apparently more resistant xylem in a subsequent dehydration, particularly in angiosperms with vessels. While our results suggest that pit membranes separating xylem conduits are critical for maintaining a conserved individual embolism threshold for given conduit when little pre-exisiting embolism is present, as the percentage of embolized conduits increases, gas movement, local pressure differences, and connectivity between conduits increasingly contribute to embolism spread.

Embolism spreading in dehydrating angiosperm xylem is driven by gas movement between embolised and sap-filled conduits. Here, we examine how proximity to pre-existing embolism and hydraulic segmentation affect embolism propagation. Based on the optical method, we compared xylem embolism resistance between detached leaves and leaves attached to branches, and between intact leaves and leaves with cut minor veins for six species. Moreover, we directly compared the optical and pneumatic method on detached leaves. Embolism resistance of detached leaves was significantly lower than leaves attached to stems, except for two species with all vessels ending in their petioles. Cutting of minor veins showed limited embolism spreading in minor veins near the cuts prior to major veins. Moreover, there was strong agreement in embolism resistance between the optical and pneumatic method, with minor differences occurring during early stages of embolism formation. We conclude that embolism resistance may represent a relative trait, depending on the proximity and connectivity to pre-existing embolism as a gas source. Since embolism formation may not rely on a certain pressure difference threshold between functional and embolised conduits, we suggest that embolism is facilitated by pressure-driven gas diffusion, while hydraulic segmentation can prevent embolism propagation by reducing gas diffusion.

Embolism spreading in dehydrating angiosperm xylem is driven by gas movement between embolised and sap-filled conduits. Here, we examine how proximity to pre-existing embolism and hydraulic segmentation affect embolism propagation. Based on the optical method, we compared xylem embolism resistance between detached leaves and leaves attached to branches, and between intact leaves and leaves with minor veins cut (n = 6 species). Moreover, we directly compared the optical and pneumatic method on detached leaves. Embolism resistance of detached leaves was significantly lower than leaves attached to stems, except for two species with all vessels ending in their petioles. Cutting of minor veins showed embolism spreading in narrow vessels near the cuts prior to wide vessels in major veins. Moreover, embolism spreading between open and intact vessels occurred at largely similar xylem water potentials than embolism spreading between intact vessels, resulting in strong similarity between the optical and pneumatic method. We conclude that embolism spreading may depend on a direct connection to pre-existing embolism as gas source, is not exclusively pressure-driven, and indirectly related to conduit size. Hydraulic segmentation, however, can minimise embolism spreading due to confined and/or poorly interconnected conduits, which may increase hydraulic safety by slowing down gas diffusion.