A document by Wenda Zhang. Click on the document to view its contents.

We show that steric sea-level varies with a period of 18.6 years along the western European coast. We hypothesize that this variation originates from the modulation of semidiurnal tides by the lunar nodal cycle and associated changes in ocean mixing. Accounting for the steric sea level changes in the upper 400 m of the ocean solves the discrepancy between the nodal cycle in mean sea level observed by tide gauges and the theoretical equilibrium nodal tide. Namely, by combining the equilibrium tide with the nodal modulation of steric sea level, we close the gap with the observations. This result supports earlier findings that the observed phase and amplitude of the 18.6-year cycle do not always correspond to the equilibrium nodal tide.

Ocean eddies play an important role in the distribution of heat, salt, and other tracers in the global ocean. But while surface eddies have been studied extensively, deeper eddies are less well understood. Here we study deep coherent vortices (DCVs) in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean using a high resolution numerical simulation. We perform a census of the DCVs on the $27.60$ kg/m$^3$ isopycnal, at the depth of $700-1500$ m, where DCVs of Mediterranean water (meddies) propagate. We detect a large number of DCVs, with maxima around continental shelves, and islands, dominated by small and short-lived cyclones. However, the large and long-lived DCVs are mostly anticyclonic. Among the long-lived DCVs, anticyclonic meddies, stand out. They grow in size by merging with other anticyclonic meddies. Cyclonic meddies are also regularly formed, but most of them are destroyed near their formation sites due to the presence of the energetic anticyclonic meddies, which destroy cyclones by straining and wrapping the positive vorticity around their core. During their life cycle, as they propagate to the southwest, anticyclonic meddies can interact with other DCVs, including anticyclones containing Antarctic Intermediate Water generated near the Moroccan coast, Canary anticyclonic DCVs and cyclonic DCVs generated south of $30^\circ$N along the African continental shelf. With these latter, they can form dipoles, and with the former, they co-rotate pro tempore. Thus, a more detailed view of the life cycle of anticyclonic meddies is proposed: they grow by merging, undergo multiple interactions along their path, and they decay at low latitudes.

We use seismic ambient noise recorded by dense ocean bottom nodes (OBNs) in the Gorgon gas field, Western Australia, to compute time-lapse seafloor models of shear-wave velocity. The extracted hourly cross-correlation (CC) functions in the frequency band 0.1 – 1 Hz contain mainly Scholte waves with very high signal to noise ratio. We observe temporal velocity variations (dv/v) at the order of 0.1% with a peak velocity change of 0.8% averaged from all station pairs, from the conventional time-lapse analysis with the assumption of a spatially homogeneous dv/v. With a high-resolution reference (baseline) model from full waveform inversion of Scholte waves, we present an elastic wave equation based double-difference inversion (EW-DD) method, using arrival time differences between the reference and time-lapsed Scholte waves, for mapping temporally varying dv/v in the heterogeneous subsurface. The time-lapse velocity models reveal increasing/decreasing patterns of shear-wave velocity in agreement with those from the conventional analysis. The velocity variation exhibits a ~24-hour cycling pattern, which appears to be inversely correlated with sea level height, possibly associated with dilatant effects for porous, low-velocity shallow seafloor and rising pore pressure with higher sea level. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using dense passive seismic surveys for quantitative monitoring of subsurface property changes in the horizontal and depth domain.

This manuscript reports on a robot called Clio that we developed to facilitate basin-scale studies of ocean microbial communities and their biochemistry, to better understand how marine microorganisms regulate ocean and Earth system environmental cycles. Clio is designed to facilitate global-scale studies of ocean biochemistry, to move vertically through the water column with high precision, and specifically to return sensor data and samples from large swaths of the ocean ranging in depths from the surface to 6,000 m. Clio is capable of flexible, precise vertical motion that few other ocean robots can perform, and none to our knowledge over this depth range. We tested Clio extensively over several years, six cruises, and 26 dives, it is now fully operational and this manuscript describes all that we did to convince ourselves this was so. In June 2019, it completed its first large-scale ocean survey, and for which this manuscript will be the first data presentation.

In the tropical Pacific, weak ventilation and intense microbial respiration at depth give rise to a low dissolved oxygen (O2) environment that is thought to be ventilated primarily by the equatorial current system (ECS). The role of mesoscale eddies and diapycnal mixing as potential pathways of O2 supply in this region, however, remains poorly known due to sparse observations and coarse model resolution. Using an eddy resolving simulation of ocean circulation and biogeochemistry, we assess the contribution of these processes to the O2 budget balance and find that turbulent mixing of O2 and its modulation by mesoscale eddies contribute substantially to the replenishment of O2 in the upper equatorial Pacific thermocline, complementing the advective supply of O2 by the ECS and meridional circulation at depth. These transport processes are strongly sensitive to seasonal forcing by the wind, with elevated mixing of O2 into the upper thermocline during summer and fall when the vertical shear of the lateral flow and eddy kinetic energy are intensified. The tight link between eddy activity and the downward mixing of O2 arises from the modulation of equatorial turbulence by Tropical Instability Waves via their eddy impacts on the vertical shear. This interaction of ocean processes across scales sustains a local pathway of O2 delivery into the equatorial Pacific interior and highlights the need for adequate observations and model representation of turbulent mixing and mesoscale processes for understanding and predicting the fate of the tropical Pacific O2 content in a warmer and more stratified ocean.

Studying West African Monsoon (WAM) dynamics during past warm time periods such as the Miocene Climatic Optimum (MCO; ~16.9 – 14.5 Ma) could greatly aid in better projecting monsoon intensity, in the context of future greenhouse warming. However, studies on regional MCO temperature change and its effect on the WAM system during this time period are lacking. Here, we reconstruct a ~1.5 °C rise in sea surface temperature (SST) at the onset of the MCO (16.9 Ma) in the eastern equatorial Atlantic Ocean, at Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 959, based on TEX86 paleothermometry, accompanied by a transient increase in %total organic carbon (TOC). Prior to the MCO (~18.3 – 17.7 Ma), sediment composition, geochemical proxy data as well as dinoflagellate cyst assemblages imply a productive surface ocean at Site 959. Immediately following the MCO onset (~16.9 – 16.5 Ma), we record an intensification of the WAM characterized by higher amplitude variability in all proxy records on precession to obliquity timescales. We interpret increased orbital-scale SST variability to represent intensification of equatorial upwelling, forced by the WAM strength. Furthermore, higher SSTs during eccentricity maxima correlate to increased relative abundances of the warm and stratification-favoring dinocyst Polysphaeridium cpx., during periods of low WAM intensity. Finally, while long-term SSTs decline towards the middle Miocene, maximum SSTs and Polysphaeridium cpx. abundances occur during MCO peak warming at ~15.6 Ma.

Detailed analysis of tropical climate dynamics is lacking for the Early to Middle Miocene, even though this time interval bears important analogies for future climates. Based on high-resolution proxy reconstructions of sea (sub)surface temperature, export productivity and dust supply at Ocean Drilling Program Site 959, we investigate orbital forcing of the West African monsoon in the eastern equatorial Atlantic across the prelude, onset, and continuation of the Miocene Climatic Optimum (MCO; 18-15 Ma). Along with previously identified eccentricity periodicities of ~400 kyr and ~100 kyr, our records show that climate varied on ~27-17 kyr, ~41 kyr, and ~60-50 kyr timescales, which we attribute to precession, obliquity, and their combination tones, respectively. Three intervals with distinct variability were recognized: (1) strong eccentricity, obliquity, and precession variability prior to the MCO (18.2-17.7 Ma), (2) strong influence of obliquity just after the onset of the MCO (16.9-16.3 Ma) concurring with a node in the 2.4 Myr eccentricity cycle, and (3) dominant eccentricity and precession variability during the MCO between 16.3 and 15.0 Ma. Sedimentation at Site 959 was influenced by orbitally-paced variations in upwelling intensity and North African aridity related to West African monsoon dynamics. Continuously present patterns of precession imply low-latitude forcing, while asymmetric eccentricity and obliquity imprints and strong obliquity influence suggest that Site 959 was also affected by high-latitude, glacial-interglacial dynamics.

The baroclinic component of the sea surface height, referred to as steric height, is governed by geostrophically balanced motions and unbalanced internal waves, and thus is an essential indicator of ocean interior dynamics. Using yearlong measurements from a mooring array, we assess the distribution of upper-ocean steric height across frequencies and spatial scales of O(1-20 km) in the northeast Atlantic. Temporal decomposition indicates that the two largest contributors to steric height variance are large-scale atmospheric forcing (32.8%) and mesoscale eddies (34.1%), followed by submesoscale motions (15.2%), semidiurnal internal tides (8%), super-tidal variability (6.1%) and near-inertial motions (3.8%). Structure function diagnostics further reveal the seasonality and scale dependence of steric height variance. In winter, steric height is dominated by balanced motions across all resolved scales, whereas in summer, unbalanced internal waves become the leading-order contributor to steric height at scales of a few kilometers.

Excessive nutrient loading is a well-established driver of hypoxia in aquatic ecosystems. However, recent limnological research has illuminated the role of Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM) in exacerbating hypoxic conditions, particularly in freshwater lakes. In coastal ocean environments, the influence of CDOM on hypoxia remains an underexplored area of investigation. This study seeks to elucidate the intricate relationship between CDOM and hypoxia by employing a nitrogen-based model within the context of Chesapeake Bay, a large estuary with unique characteristics including salinity stratification and the localization of hypoxia/anoxia in a 30-meter-deep channel aligned with the estuary’s primary stem. Our findings indicate that the impact of CDOM on nutrient dynamics and productivity varies significantly across different regions of Chesapeake Bay. In the upper Bay, the removal of CDOM reduces light limitation, thus promoting increased productivity, resulting in the generation of more detritus and burial, which, in turn, contributes to elevated levels of hypoxia. As we transition to the middle and lower Bay, the removal of CDOM can cause a decline in integrated primary productivity due to nutrient uptake in the upper Bay. This decrease in productivity is associated with reduced burial and denitrification, ultimately leading to a decrease in hypoxia levels. Streamflow modulates this impact. The time integral of the hypoxic volume during low-flow years is particularly sensitive to CDOM removal, while in high-flow years, it is relatively unchanged. This research underscores the necessity for a comprehensive understanding of the intricate interactions between CDOM and hypoxia in coastal ecosystems.

Convergent coastal-plain estuaries have been shortened by dam-like structures worldwide. We used 31 long-term water level stations and a semi-analytical tide model to investigate the influence of a dam and landward-funneling on tides and storm surge propagation in the greater Charleston Harbor region, South Carolina, where three rivers meet: the Ashley, Cooper, and Wando. Our analysis shows that the principle tidal harmonic (M2), storm surge, and long-period setup-setdown (~4–10 days) propagate as long waves with the greatest amplification and celerity observed in the M2 wave. All waves attenuate in landward regions, but, as they approach the dam on the Cooper River, a frequency dependent response in amplitude and phase progression occurs. Dam-induced amplification scales with wave frequency, causing the greatest amplification in M2 overtides. Model results show that funneling and the presence of a dam amplify tidal waves through partial and full reflection, respectively. The different phase progression of these reflected waves, however, can ultimately reduce the total wave amplification. We use a friction-convergence parameter space to demonstrate how amplification is largest for partial reflection, when funneling and wave periods are not extreme (often the case of dominant tides), and for full reflection, when funneling and/or wave periods are small. The analysis also shows that in the case of long period events (>day), such as storm surges, dams may attenuate the wave in funneling estuaries. However, dams may amplify the most intense storm surges (short, high) more than funneling with unexpected consequence that can greatly increase flood exposure.

A document by Xiang Yang. Click on the document to view its contents.

Currents and pressure records from the DeepLev mooring station (Eastern Levantine Basin) are analyzed to identify the dominant tidal constituents and their seasonal and depth variability. Harmonic and spectral analysis on seasonal segments of currents and pressure reveal attributes of the tidal regime in the Eastern Levantine Basin: (1) Dominant semidiurnal sea-level variability; (2) seasonal variation of semidiurnal and diurnal tides found in both currents and pressure datasets; and (3) significant diurnal currents with weak semidiurnal currents in all seasons. The most dominant tidal constituent found from the pressure dataset is the M2 (12.4 h). Results from pressure datasets generally agree with previous models and observations of semidiurnal tides, while the diurnal tides are larger than previously reported by 8-9 cm in the winter and 1-2 cm in the summer. The surface current variability differs from the one reported before in the Eastern Levantine Basin, with M2 magnitudes weaker by 1 cm, while the diurnal tides (K1, O1) are 1-2 cm larger. Seasonal segments showed seasonal differences in the local tidal regime’s amplitudes, with the K1 (7 cm difference between winter and fall) and S2 (4 cm difference between summer and fall) the most pronounced. We analyzed the M2 and S2 tides using surface drifters near DeepLev at different dataset lengths while considering the time constraints needed to resolve the tides adequately. The longer the dataset, the higher the resolution of the tidal analysis and the lower the amplitude leakages from nearby frequencies resulting in weaker tidal currents.

Estuaries in the northern California current system (NCCS) experience seasonally reversing wind stress, which is expected to impact the origin and properties of shelf water which enters NCCS estuaries (’shelf inflow’). Wind stress has been shown to affect the source of shelf inflow by driving alongshelf currents. However, the effects of wind-driven Ekman dynamics and shelf currents from larger-scale forcing on shelf inflow have yet to be explored. Variations in shelf inflow to the Salish Sea and the Columbia River estuary, two large NCCS estuarine systems, were studied using a realistic hydrodynamic model. The paths and source of shelf water were identified using particles released on the shelf. Particles were released every two weeks of 2017 and tracked for sixty days. Shelf inflow was identified as particles that crossed the estuary mouths. Mean wind stress during each release was compared with initial horizontal and vertical positions and physical properties of shelf inflow particles. For both the Salish Sea and the Columbia River estuary, upwelling-favorable wind stress was correlated with a shelf inflow source north of the estuary mouth. Depth was not correlated with wind stress for either estuary, but relative depth (depth scaled by isobath) increased during upwelling-favorable winds for both. Properties of inflow changed from cold and fresh during upwelling to warm and salty during downwelling, reflecting seasonal changes in NCCS shelf waters. These results may be extended to predict the source and properties of shelf inflow to estuaries in other regions with known wind or shelf current patterns.

This study examines the impact of ocean advection and surface freshwater flux on the non-seasonal, upper-ocean salinity variability in two climate model simulations with eddy-resolving and eddy-parameterized ocean components (HR and LR, respectively). We assess the realism of each simulation by comparing their sea surface salinity (SSS) variance with satellite and Argo float estimates. Our results show that, in the extratropics, the HR variance is about five times larger than that in LR and agrees with the Argo estimates. In turn, the extratropical satellite SSS variance is smaller than that from HR and Argo by about a factor of two, potentially reflecting the low sensitivity of radiometers to SSS in cold waters. Using a simplified salinity conservation equation for the upper-50-m ocean layer, we find that the advection-driven variance in HR is, on average, one order of magnitude larger than the surface flux-driven variance, reflecting the action of mesoscale processes.

North Atlantic sea surface temperatures (NASST), particularly in the subpolar region, are among the most predictable locations in the world’s oceans. However, the relative importance of atmospheric and oceanic controls on their variability at multidecadal timescales remain uncertain. Neural networks (NNs) are trained to examine the relative importance of oceanic and atmospheric predictors in predicting the NASST state in the Community Earth System Model 1 (CESM1). In the presence of external forcings, oceanic predictors outperform atmospheric predictors, persistence, and random chance baselines out to 25-year leadtimes. Layer-wise relevance propagation is used to unveil the sources of predictability, and reveal that NNs consistently rely upon the Gulf Stream-North Atlantic Current region for accurate predictions. Additionally, CESM1-trained NNs do not need additional transfer learning to successfully predict the phasing of multidecadal variability in an observational dataset, suggesting consistency in physical processes driving NASST variability between CESM1 and observations.

A document by Roy Barkan. Click on the document to view its contents.

Sea ice-waves interactions have been widely studied in the marginal ice zone, at relatively low wind speeds and wave frequencies. Here, we focus on very different conditions typical of coastal polynyas: extremely high wind speeds and locally-generated, short, steep waves. We overview available parameterizations of relevant physical processes (nonlinear wave-wave interactions, energy input by wind, whitecapping and ice-related dissipation) and discuss modifications necessary to adjust them to polynya conditions. We use satellite-derived data and spectral modelling to analyze waves in ten polynya events in the Terra Nova Bay, Antarctica. We estimate the wind-input reduction factor over ice in the wave-energy balance equation at 0.56. By calibrating the model to satellite observations we show that exact treatment of quadruplet wave-wave interactions (as opposed to the default Discrete Interaction Approximation) is necessary to fit the model to data, and that the power n>4 in the sea-ice source term S_ice~f^n (where f denotes wave frequency) is required to reproduce the observed very strong attenuation in spectral tail in frazil streaks. We use a very-high resolution satellite image of a fragment of one of the polynyas to determine whitecap fraction. We show that there are more than twofold differences in whitecap fraction over ice-free and ice-covered regions, and that the model produces realistic whitecap fractions without any tuning of the whitecapping source term. Finally, we estimate the polynya-area-integrated wind input, energy dissipation due to whitecapping, and whitecap fraction to be on average below 25%, 10% and 30%, respectively, of the corresponding open-water values.

Mesoscale eddies play an important role in transporting water properties, enhancing air-sea interactions, and promoting large-scale mixing of the ocean. They are generally referred to as “coherent” structures because they are organized, rotating fluid elements that propagate within the ocean and have long lifetimes (months or even years). Eddies have been sampled by sparse in-situ vertical profiles, but because in-situ ocean observations are limited, they have been characterized primarily from satellite observations, numerical simulations, or relatively idealized geophysical fluid dynamics methods. However, each of these approaches has its limitations. Many questions about the general structure and “coherence” of ocean eddies remain unanswered. In this study, we investigate the properties of 7 mesoscale eddies sampled with relative accuracy during 4 different field experiments in the Atlantic. Our results suggest that the Ertel Potential Vorticity (EPV) is a suitable parameter to isolate and characterize the eddy cores and their boundaries. The latter appear as regions of finite horizontal extent, characterized by a local extremum of the vertical and horizontal components of the EPV. These are found to be closely related to the presence of a different water mass in the core (relative to the background) and the steepening of the isopycnals due to eddy occurrence and dynamics. Based on these results, we propose a new criterion for defining eddies. We test our approach using a theoretical framework and explore the possible magnitude of this new criterion, including its upper bound.

A significant shift in Earth’s climate characterizes the Neogene, transitioning from a single-ice-sheet planet to the current bipolar configuration. This climate evolution is closely linked to changing ocean currents, but globally-distributed continuous high-resolution sedimentary records are needed to fully capture this interaction. The Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 752, located on Broken Ridge in the Indian Ocean, provides such a Miocene-to-recent archive. We use X-ray fluorescence (XRF) core scanning to build an eccentricity-tuned age-depth model and reconstruct paleoceanographic changes since 23 Ma. We find two intervals of enhanced productivity, during the early and middle Miocene (18.5 – 13.7 Ma) and late Pliocene/early Pleistocene (3 – 1 Ma). We also report a mixed eccentricity-obliquity imprint in the XRF-derived paleoproductivity proxy. In terms of grain size, three coarsening steps occur between 19.2 – 16 Ma, 10.8 – 8 Ma, and since 2.6 Ma. The steps respectively indicate stronger current winnowing in response to vigorous Antarctic Intermediate Water flow over Broken Ridge in the early Miocene, the first transient onset of Tasman Leakage in the Late Miocene, and the intensification of global oceanic circulation at the Plio-Pleistocene transition. High-resolution iron and manganese series provide a detailed Neogene dust record. This study utilized a single hole from an ODP legacy-site. Nevertheless, we managed to provide novel perspectives on past Indian Ocean responses to astronomical forcing. We conclude that Neogene sediments from Broken Ridge harbor the potential for even more comprehensive reconstructions. Realizing this potential necessitates re-drilling of these sedimentary archives utilizing modern drilling strategies.

An ensemble of experiments based on a ¼° global NEMO configuration is presented, including tidally forced and non-tidal simulations, and using both the default z* geopotential vertical coordinate and the z~ filtered Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian coordinate, the latter being known to reduce numerical mixing. This is used to investigate the sensitivity of numerical mixing, and the resulting model drifts and biases, to both tidal forcing and the choice of vertical coordinate. The model is found to simulate an acceptably realistic external tide, and the first-mode internal tide has a spatial distribution consistent with estimates from observations and high-resolution tidal models, with vertical velocities in the internal tide of over 50 meters per day. Tidal forcing with the z* coordinate increases numerical mixing in the upper ocean between 30°S and 30°N where strong internal tides occur, while the z~ coordinate substantially reduces numerical mixing and biases in tidal simulations to levels below those in the z* non-tidal control. The implications for the next generation of climate models are discussed.

We explore the sensitivity of Southern Ocean surface and deep ocean temperature and salinity biases in the FOCI coupled climate model to atmosphere-ocean coupling time step and to lateral diffusion in the ocean with the goal to reduce biases common to climate models. The reference simulation suffers from a warm bias at the sea surface which also extends down to the seafloor in the Southern Ocean and is accompanied by a too fresh surface, in particular along the Antarctic coast. Reducing the atmosphere-ocean coupling time step from 3 hours to 1 hour results in increased sea-ice production on the shelf and enhanced melting to the north which reduces the fresh bias of the shelf water while also strengthening the meridional density gradient favouring a stronger Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC). With the shorter coupling step we also find a stronger meridional overturning circulation with more upwelling and downwelling south and north of the ACC respectively, as well as a reduced warm bias at almost all depths. Tuning the lateral ocean mixing has only a small effect on the model biases, which contradicts previous studies using a similar model configuration. We note that the latitude of the surface westerly wind maximum has a northward bias in the reference simulation and that this bias is unchanged as the surface temperature and sea-ice biases are reduced in the coupled simulations. Hence, the surface wind biases over the Southern Hemisphere midlatitudes appear to be unrelated to biases in sea-surface conditions.

Recent marine heatwaves in the Gulf of Alaska have had devastating and lasting impacts on species from various trophic levels. As a result of climate change, total heat exposure in the upper ocean has become longer, more intense, more frequent, and more likely to happen at the same time as other environmental extremes. The combination of multiple environmental extremes can exacerbate the response of sensitive marine organisms. Our hindcast simulation provides the first indication that more than 20 % of the bottom water of the Gulf of Alaska continental shelf was exposed to quadruple heat, positive [H+], negative Ωarag, and negative [O2] compound extreme events during the 2018-2020 marine heat wave. Natural intrusion of deep and acidified water combined with the marine heat wave triggered the first occurrence of these events in 2019. During the 2013-2016 marine heat wave, surface waters were already exposed to widespread marine heat and positive [H+] compound extreme events due to the temperature effect on the [H+]. We introduce a new Gulf of Alaska Downwelling Index (GOADI) with short-term predictive skill, which can serve as indicator of past and near-future positive [H+], negative Ωarag, and negative [O2] compound extreme events on the shelf. Our results suggest that the marine heat waves may have not been the sole environmental stressor that led to the observed ecosystem impacts and warrant a closer look at existing in situ inorganic carbon and other environmental data in combination with biological observations and model output.

In the northern Gulf of Mexico shelf, the Mississippi-Atchafalaya River System (MARS) impacts the carbonate system by delivering freshwater with a distinct seasonal pattern in both total alkalinity (Alk) and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), and promoting biologically-driven changes in DIC through nutrient inputs. However, how and to what degree these processes modulate the interannual variability in calcium carbonate solubility have been poorly documented. Here, we use an ocean-biogeochemical model to investigate the impact of MARS’s discharge and chemistry on interannual anomalies of aragonite saturation state (ΩAr). Based on model results, we show that the enhanced mixing of riverine waters with a low buffer capacity (low Alk-to-DIC ratio) during high-discharge winters promotes a significant ΩAr decline over the inner-shelf. We also show that increased nutrient runoff and vertical stratification during high-discharge summers promotes strong negative anomalies in bottom ΩAr, and less intense but significant positive anomalies in surface ΩAr. Therefore, increased MARS discharge promotes an increased frequency of suboptimal ΩAr levels for nearshore coastal calcifying species. Additional sensitivity experiments further show that reductions in the Alk-to-DIC ratio and nitrate concentration from the MARS significantly modify the simulated ΩAr spatial patterns, weakening the positive surface ΩAr anomalies during high-discharge summers or even producing negative surface ΩAr anomalies. Our findings suggest that riverine water carbonate chemistry is a main driver of interannual variability in ΩAr over river dominated ocean margins.