Charge-Discharge Cycling Studies:
The discharge profiles of the cycled cells at -10, 0, 25 and 40 °C are shown in Figure 3a-d. It was observed that during the initial cycles the total discharge duration at 40 and 25 °C is about 2X as compared to that at 0 and -10 °C, which is due to slower kinetics and lower electrolyte conductivity. Moreover, the discharge duration are 2, 2.5, 3.8 and 1.5 h after 120 cycles for 40, 25, 0 and -10 °C, respectively. This suggests that ageing of PbA battery is faster at elevated temperature (40 and 25 °C) than at sub-ambient temperatures (0 and -10 °C). For cell discharged at 0 °C, the total discharging duration remains unchanged throughout the cycling studies. Whereas for cell discharged at -10 °C the discharge duration decreases from 3.5 to 1.5h, which is relatively faster ageing despite low active materials utilization due to reduced initial available capacity.