Experimental: Wild populations
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Social interactions:
Remote cameras to video-record behavior of individuals in social
context at foraging stations
Each station has 2 food items: primary resource (e.g., carrion) and
secondary resource (fruit)
Direction of aggressive/submissive behaviors indicates relative
dominance among individuals in a dyad or group
Food item selection by solitary individuals confirms a preference for
primary resource and role of social interactions in frugivory
Link individual behavior to scat collection:
Food items are tagged with fine glitter or fluorescent dye (unique
color for each station)
Hair snags near each food item to capture DNA samples to ID individual
genotypes
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Dispersal distance:
Presence/color of glitter or dye in scat indicates distance and
direction of movement from station
Quantity of seeds dispersed:
Count number of seeds per scat deposit
Germination trials to estimate # viable seeds per scat
Sequence DNA from scat to link individual genotypes from scat and
feeding station assay
Quality of seed dispersal:
Estimate rates of seed removal (see Bartel & Orrock 2021 for seed
removal tray design) in microhabitats where scat is found
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Experimental: Captive populations
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Human observers record direction of aggressive/submissive behaviors to
estimate each captive group’s dominance hierarchy
Each group is given 2 food items: primary resource (e.g., carrion) and
secondary resource (fruiting shrubs)
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Dispersal distance:
Observations of individual gut retention times can be used with
published estimates of movement distances in wild populations to
estimate potential dispersal distance
Quantity of seeds dispersed:
Count number of seeds per scat deposit per individual
Germination trials to estimate seed viability
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Observational:
Remote sensing
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Remote cameras to video-record behavior of individuals in social
context at primary resources (e.g., carrion or fruiting trees) and
secondary resources (e.g., fruiting shrubs)
Direction of aggressive/submissive behaviors indicates relative
dominance among individuals in a dyad or group
Individuals may be distinguished either visually in photos or with
radio-collars
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Dispersal distance:
Published estimates of gut retention times and movement distances can
be used to estimate potential dispersal distance
Quantity of seeds dispersed:
Visually estimated through video recordings at fruit sources (# of
visits and # of seeds consumed per visit)
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Observational:
Molecular analyses
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Extensive scat collection may be done in systems where social status
carries a molecular signature. Identify individuals through genetic
analysis of scat. The following molecular approaches may be used
estimate individual social status:
Fecal glucocorticoid concentration is related to dominance in some
cooperative breeding species (Creel 2001)
Reproductive hormone concentrations may be used in systems where
reproductive status affects dominance
Genetic analyses to identify sex may be used when sex affects
dominance
Average mass of scat per individual may provide estimation of
individual size when size affects dominance
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Quantity of seeds dispersed:
Count number of seeds per scat deposit
Germination trials to estimate # viable seeds per scat
Quality of seed dispersal:
Estimate rates of seed removal in microhabitats where scat is found
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